Cadbury Report July 12, 2008
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The UK went through its own Enron-style crisis of confidence in company management more than a decade ago. Scandals such as the Maxwell pension debacle, coupled with the sudden and catastrophic collapses of BCCI and Polly Peck, gave ample reason to improve accountability and transparency.
Sir Adrian Cadbury, former chairman of the Cadbury chocolate company, was charged with creating a list of recommended changes. His 90-page report, The Financial Aspects of Corporate Governance, outlined a code of conduct for listed companies that attempted to address ethical as well as legal questions.
The Cadbury Report, titled Financial Aspects of Corporate Governance, is a report of a committee chaired by Adrian Cadbury that sets out recommendations on the arrangement of company boards and accounting systems to mitigate corporate governance risks and failures. The report was published in 1992. The report’s recommendations have been adopted in varying degree by the European Union, the United States, the World Bank, and others.
Sridhar Arcot and Valentina Bruno in their article called ‘In Letter but not in Spirit: An Analysis of Corporate Governance in the UK explain the background to the Cadbury Committee.
Robert Maxwell’s death while cruising on the Canary Islands in 1990 shone a spotlight on his company’s affairs. A series of risky acquisitions in the mid-eighties had led Maxwell communications into high debts, which was being financed by diverting resources from the pension funds of his companies. After his disappearance, it emerged that the Mirror Group’s debts (one of Maxwell’s companies) vastly outweighed its assets, while GBP 440 millions were missing from the compan’s pension funds. Despite the suspicion of manipulation of the pension schemes, there was a widespread feeling in the City of London that no action was taken by UK or US regulators against the Maxwell Communications Corp. Eventually, in 1992 Maxwell’s companies led for bankruptcy protection in the UK and US. At around the same time the Bank of Credit and Commerce International (BCCI) went bust and lost billions of dollars for its depositors, shareholders and employees. Another company, Polly Peck, reported healthy profits one year while declaring bankruptcy the next.
Following the raft of governance failures, Sir Adrian Cadbury chaired a committee whose aims were to investigate the British corporate governance system and to suggest improvements restore investor confidence in the system. The Committee was set up in May 1991 by the Financial Reporting Council, the London Stock Exchange, and the accountancy profession. The report embodied recommendations based on practical experiences and with an eye on the US experience, further elaborated after a process of consultation and widely accepted. The final report was released in December 1992 and then applied to listed companies reporting their accounts after 30th June 1993.
The report states that:-
The Cadbury Committee’s draft report on “The Financial Aspects of Corporate
Governance” was issued on the 27 May 1992 and comments were requested by the 31 July
1992.
The United Kingdom Shareholders’ Association’s objectives are:-
1. To encourage, support and enable private shareholders in all feasible ways to
discharge more effectively their ownership role in the companies of which they are
members, given the present legal and regulatory system.
2. To advocate changes in the present legal and regulatory system where this would
enable private shareholders to act in a way which improved the corporate governance
of companies of which they are members.
The Association is in the process of formation and some further information is given in
Appendix ‘A’.
There is almost universal agreement as to the progressive decline in the standards of UK
corporate governance, indeed that is the reason for appointing your Committee. There is
also widespread agreement that one factor contributing to this decline is the absence of
effective ownership. Both institutional and individual shareholders perceive many
obstacles in the way of their performing effectively their ownership role.
We believe, therefore, that solutions should be sought in the direction of establishing more
effective control by the owners of the board and of the auditors. The weight of your
Committee’s view is that more effective control will stem from more reporting and more
information. Whilst we accept that benefits will flow from more information, we believe
that much greater weight now needs to be given to making more effective use of the
reporting and information presently provided by
companies.
We, therefore, focus our comments primarily on issue iv of your Committee’s Terms of
Reference, namely:-
“the links between shareholders, boards and auditors”
The summary of the proposals of the report are:-
We believe that the continuing decline in the standards of corporate governance does
require urgent action. We do not believe that the entire responsibility for this decline lies
with the boards of PLCs, albeit they must take the main share. Given that the law places
ownership on the shareholders, they have a responsibility to act. It is the objective of this
Association to assist individual shareholders, in a professional manner, to do so.
Given the need to act, we argue that the initial focus should be on improving the conduct of
AGMs which should be reformed in order to provide a more effective conduit for members
not only to make their views better known to the board but also to have their views make
more impact on board decisions.
With the above in mind, we make the following five PROPOSALS which are supported by
a brief argument in the main body of this document:-
1. The present restrictive requirements regarding members’ resolutions to be changed,
primarily in respect of number of members needed to sign and costs to be borne by the
company (see section 2.2)
2. Resolutions regarding the remuneration of directors to be voted on at AGMs with
disclosure matching the new regulations set by the US Securities & Exchange
Commission (see section 2.2)
3 The status of questions at AGMs to be enhanced. Three classes of questions to be
recognised – written, supplementary and oral – with agreed procedures. Minimum time
of one hour to be devoted to questions. Members to have the right to put questions
directly to the auditor and/or the Chairman of the Remuneration Committee (see
section 2.3).
3. Two classes of non-executive directors to be created, one appointed by the board to
contribute to the ‘leadership’ of the company, the other class appointed by members to
contribute to the ‘control’ of the company. This reflects the distinction made in your
Committee’s report between the two roles of non-executive directors (see section 3.2).
4. Compulsory rotation of auditors to be adopted. Other proposals put to your committee,
such as transferring audit sovereignty from members to independent trustees, to be
further examined (see section 4).
Types of Ownership of a Company July 12, 2008
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There are a few types of ownership company which exist in Malaysia. Businesses of Malaysia can be divided into Sole Proprietorship/Sole Trader, Partnership, Private Limited Companies and Public Limited Companies.
A Sole Proprietorship is a business owned by one person. Most of the small businesses in Malaysia are registered under the Sole Proprietorship entity as it is easier to be managed and no additional work needs to be done to start the business. Businesses under the Sole Proprietorship entity does not pay corporate taxes, instead the owner will only need to pay personal income taxes on the profits the business made, making accounting much simpler. However, the owner of a Sole Proprietorship business needs to take full responsibility on the profits and losses of the business and hence, the owner has unlimited liability over the debts incurred by the business.
A Partnership is a type of business entity in which partners (owners) share with each other the profits or losses of the business undertaking in which all have invested. A normal Partnership company can have up to 20 partners, while professional bodies like Law and Accounting firms can have up to 50 partners. Partnerships are often favored over Limited Companies for taxation purposes, as the partnership structure does not generally incur a tax on profits before it is distributed to the partners. The partners would just need to pay personal income taxes based on the profits distributed. However, the partners of the business has unlimited liability over the debts incurred by the business distributed among them according to their partnership structures.
A Private Limited Company is a type of business entity which is limited by shares. A Private Limited Company has shareholders with limited liability and its shares may not be offered to the general public. “Limited by shares” means that the company has shareholders, and that the liability of the shareholders to creditors of the company is limited to the capital originally invested, i.e. the nominal value of the shares and any premium paid in return for the issue of the shares by the company. A shareholder’s personal assets are thereby protected in the event of the company’s insolvency, but money invested in the company will be lost. Most companies, particularly small companies, are private. A Private Limited Company can have anywhere from two to 50 shareholders and the shares can only be traded privately. A Private Limited Company needs to hire at least an Accounting firm, a Law firm and a Secretariat firm to handle the company’s accounts, legal issues as well as paper works. The accounts of a Private Limited Company needs to be audited by a Certified Charted Accountant before it can be handed in to the Inland Revenue Board.
A Public Limited Company is a type of limited company which is permitted to offer its shares to the public. A Public Limited Company can have anywhere from two to unlimited shareholders. A Public Limited Company is a little similar to a Private Limited Company but what differentiates them is that a Public Limited Company will have their shares traded at stock markets publicly. Besides, their company’s financial information also needs to be revealed to the public.
Printers July 12, 2008
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1. Laser printer
A type of printer that utilizes a laser beam to produce an image on a drum. The light of the laser alters the electrical charge on the drum wherever it hits. The drum is then rolled through a reservoir of toner, which is picked up by the charged portions of the drum. Finally, the toner is transferred to the paper through a combination of heat and pressure. This is also the way copy machines work.
Because an entire page is transmitted to a drum before the toner is applied, laser printers are sometimes called page printers. There are two other types of page printers that fall under the category of laser printers even though they do not use lasers at all. One uses an array of LEDs to expose the drum, and the other uses LCDs. Once the drum is charged, however, they both operate like a real laser printer.
One of the chief characteristics of laser printers is their resolution — how many dots per inch (dpi) they lay down. The available resolutions range from 300 dpi at the low end to 1,200 dpi at the high end. By comparison, offset printing usually prints at 1,200 or 2,400 dpi. Some laser printers achieve higher resolutions with special techniques known generally as resolution enhancement.
In addition to the standard monochrome laser printer, which uses a single toner, there also exist color laser printers that use four toners to print in full color. Color laser printers tend to be about five to ten times as expensive as their monochrome siblings.
Laser printers produce very high-quality print and are capable of printing an almost unlimited variety of fonts. Most laser printers come with a basic set of fonts, called internal or resident fonts, but you can add additional fonts in one of two ways:
- fonts cartridges : Laser printers have slots in which you can insert font cartridges, ROM boards on which fonts have been recorded. The advantage of font cartridges is that they use none of the printer’s memory.
- soft fonts : All laser printers come with a certain amount of RAM memory, and you can usually increase the amount of memory by adding memory boards in the printer’s expansion slots. You can then copy fonts from a disk to the printer’s RAM. This is called downloading fonts. A font that has been downloaded is often referred to as a soft font, to distinguish it from the hard fonts available on font cartridges. The more RAM a printer has, the more fonts that can be downloaded at one time.
Because laser printers are nonimpact printers, they are much quieter than dot-matrix or daisy-wheel printers. They are also relatively fast, although not as fast as some dot-matrix printers. The speed of laser printers ranges from about 4 to 20 pages of text per minute (ppm). A typical rate of 6 ppm is equivalent to about 40 characters per second (cps).
Laser printers are controlled through page description languages (PDLs). There are two de facto standards for PDLs:
- PCL : Hewlett-Packard (HP) was one of the pioneers of laser printers and has developed a Printer Control Language (PCL) to control out put. There are several versions of PCL, so a printer may be compatible with one but not another. In addition, many printers that claim compatibility cannot accept HP font cartridges.
- PostScript : This is the de facto standard for Apple Macintosh printers and for all desktop publishing systems.
Most software can print using either of these PDLs. PostScript tends to be a bit more expensive, but it has some features that PCL lacks and it is the standard for desktop publishing. Some printers support both PCL and PostScript.
2. Bubble-jet printer
3. Inkjet printer
A type of printer that works by spraying ionized ink at a sheet of paper. Magnetized plates in the ink’s path direct the ink onto the paper in the desired shapes. Ink-jet printers are capable of producing high quality print approaching that produced by laser printers. A typical ink-jet printer provides a resolution of 300 dots per inch, although some newer models offer higher resolutions.In general, the price of ink-jet printers is lower than that of laser printers . However, they are also considerably slower. Another drawback of ink-jet printers is that they require a special type of ink that is apt to smudge on inexpensive copier paper.
Because ink-jet printers require smaller mechanical parts than laser printers, they are especially popular as portable printers. In addition, color ink-jet printers provide an inexpensive way to print full-color documents.
4. Daisy wheel printer
5. Dot-matrix printer
Dot-matrix printers vary in two important characteristics:
-
speed : Given in characters per second (cps), the speed can vary from about 50 to over 500 cps. Most dot-matrix printers offer different speeds depending on the quality of print desired.
-
print quality : Determined by the number of pins (the mechanisms that print the dots), it can vary from 9 to 24. The best dot-matrix printers (24 pins) can produce near letter-quality type, although you can still see a difference if you look closely.
Input Devices July 12, 2008
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An input device is any piece of computer hardware equipment used to provide data and control signals to an information processing system.
Machine-captured input
1. Magnetic Ink Character Recognition (MICR)
Short for Magnetic-Ink Character Recognition, MICR is a type of font capable of recognition using magnetically charged ink. Computers equipped with the right hardware and software can print and/or read the character printed in such ink.
MICR font is commonly used to print checks, deposit slips, mortgage coupons, etc. There are various types of MICR fonts, the MICR E-13B font is used in the Canada, Panama, Puerto Rico, UK, and the United States. The MICR CRC-7 was created according to the ISO standards and is a font used in France, Mexico, Spain, and most other Spanish speaking countries.
2. Optical Mark Reading (OMR)
Sample Question Sheet
Sample Answer Sheet
Short for Optical Mark Reading or Optical Mark Readers, OMR is a type of system that gathers information by using a hardware device that detects a reflection or an absence of reflection from a card or piece of paper. OMR enables the processing of hundreds or thousands of documents every hour automatically.
OMR processing is popular for tests, where students receive a special card containing several empty circles and a packet that contains the questions and possible answers to each of the questions. The student must complete the test by using a pencil to fill in each blank circle with what he or she believes is the correct answer. For example, if the answer is “B”, the student would have to completely fill in the “B Circle” in order to get the answer correct.
Once the card or form has been completed a user would feed the cards into a system that grades and/or gathers the information from the card. An example of an OMR system is the Scanmark 5500 from Scantron, a system that is capable of processing 5,500 documents every hour.
3. Scanners & Optical Character Recognition
Often abbreviated OCR, optical character recognition refers to the branch of computer science that involves reading text from paper and translating the images into a form that the computer can manipulate (for example, into ASCII codes). An OCR system enables you to take a book or a magazine article, feed it directly into an electronic computer file, and then edit the file using a word processor.
All OCR systems include an optical scanner for reading text, and sophisticated software for analyzing images. Most OCR systems use a combination of hardware (specialized circuit boards) and software to recognize characters, although some inexpensive systems do it entirely through software. Advanced OCR systems can read text in large variety of fonts, but they still have difficulty with handwritten text.
The potential of OCR systems is enormous because they enable users to harness the power of computers to access printed documents. OCR is already being used widely in the legal profession, where searches that once required hours or days can now be accomplished in a few seconds.
4. Bar Code Readers & Electronic Point of Sale (EPOS)
Found in almost all major retail stores and supermarkets, Electronic Point of sale (EPoS) systems give businesses a convenient way of recording purchase transactions. EPoS Systems generally include some sort of store inventory database, which is updated automatically when a purchase is made. Other tasks are carried out by the EPoS system, including the printing of receipts, processing of credit cards, and storage of customer and other records. Electronic Point of Sale software is highly efficient, easing the queues at checkouts, while registering all of the relevant information that the business needs to record and manage.
EPoS software allows cashiers to input commands via computer keyboards, mice, touch screens and bar code scanners. When serving a customer, the cashier can either input the item details manually using a keyboard or mouse, or automatically by using bar code scanner. The EPoS Point of Sale software will then search for the product in the inventory database, update stock and other relevant records, and issue a price. The system can also automatically calculate taxes, delivery charges, refunds, and of course, change! Once the sale is complete, the EPoS system will automatically print out a receipt.
Point of Sale software massively reduces the chances of human error and improves data integrity, as all calculations and databases are done by the computer. Could you imagine looking manually through a ten thousand item book for a 20 digit number, adding totals up and writing a receipt out all by hand? In addition, EPoS makes accounting a lot easier, as detailed reports on inventory, purchase, and customer databases can be ran off and printed in a matter of seconds.
As with any regular computer system, keeping your EPoS software and hardware up-to-date and well maintained is essential, and failure to do so can cause drastic consequences.
5. Electronic Funds Transfer at the Point of Sale (EFTPOS)
EFTPOS, Electronic Funds Transfer Point of Sale, refers to the technology that allows a retailer to directly debit a customer’s bank account by using a debit card. The debit card, generally the same as an ATM card, is swiped through a reading device just like a credit card. The customer must enter his or her PIN number, generally requested once the amount of the sale has been entered into the EFTPOS device.
There are many advantages to using an EFTPOS for the retailer and customer alike. The retailer is paid ‘instantly’ without having to accept actual cash. Though cash is certainly preferable over credit cards with surcharges, or personal checks that can bounce, there are many security liabilities surrounding the handling of large amounts of cash. Cash must be manually counted by the cashier at the POS, counted again when the register is balanced out, and finally collected by an armed service or personally deposited. With EFTPOS, the money is wired directly into the retailer’s bank account, bypassing those liabilities while saving manual resources.
The customer also comes out ahead using EFTPOS, due to its considerable convenience. A shopper need not have cash on hand, credit cards, or a checkbook to make a purchase. This is especially convenient for unplanned or impulse buying. The customer can also get cash back from the transaction — another convenience. Furthermore, if an item needs to be returned to the store, an EFTPOS sale affords the patron an instant cash refund, notwithstanding store policy. Contrast this with personal checks which require a customer to wait two weeks or more before a cash refund can be offered. Finally, EFTPOS saves the consumer money by sparing personal checks and ATM fees to withdraw cash.
EFTPOS is extremely popular in the United States, the United Kingdom, Germany, Australia, New Zealand, and Canada. Some manufacturers of EFTPOS systems include: EFTPOS, Ingenico, Axalto, Sagem, Thales, Trintech, Verifone, and Hypercom.
6. Magnetic Stripe Card Reader
Data capture device that reads information via contact with a card carrying a magnetic stripe.Also called card swipe machine or just swipe machine because the card must be passed (swiped) through a slot for reading the stored information.
Memory July 12, 2008
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Memory is the immediate storage area for the CPU where both processed data and programme instructions are held. The CPU has two main types of internal memory: Read-Only Memory (ROM) and Random Access Memory (RAM). It also uses a cache memory to further improve efficiency.
READ-ONLY MEMORY (ROM)
Read-only memory or ROM is a class of storage media used in computers and other electronic devices. It is because data stored in ROM cannot be modified, it is mainly used to distribute firmware (software that is very closely tied to specific hardware, and unlikely to require frequent updates). It is also known as the permanent memory of the computer. ROM is a non-volatile memory.
There are many types of ROM:
1. Programmable read-only memory (PROM), or one-time programmable ROM (OTP), 
can be written to or programmed via a special device called a PROM programmer. Typically, this device uses high voltages to permanently destroy or create internal links (fuses or anti-fuses) within the chip. Consequently, a PROM can only be programmed once. The key difference from a strict ROM is that the programming is applied after the device is constructed. They are frequently seen in video game consoles, or such products as electronic dictionaries, where PROMs for different languages can be substituted.
2. Erasable Programmable Read-Only Memory (EPROM) is a type of computer memory 
chip that retains its data when its power supply is switched off. In other words, it is non-volatile. It is an array of floating-gate transistors individually programmed by an electronic device that supplies higher voltages than those normally used in electronic circuits. Once programmed, an EPROM can be erased only by exposing it to strong ultraviolet light. That UV light usually has a wavelength of 235nm (for optimum erasure time) and belongs to the UVC range of UV light. EPROMs are easily recognizable by the transparent fused quartz window in the top of the package, through which the silicon chip can be seen, and which permits UV light during erasing.
3. Electrically erasable programmable read-only memory (EEPROM) is 
a type of non-volatile memory used in computers and other electronic devices to store small amounts of data that must be saved when power is removed, e.g., calibration tables or device configuration. There are two types of EEPROM: Electrically alterable read-only memory (EAROM) and Flash memory (or simply flash). EAROM is a type of EEPROM that can be modified one bit at a time. Flash memory is non-volatile computer memory that can be electrically erased and reprogrammed. It is a technology that is primarily used in memory cards and USB flash drives for general storage and transfer of data between computers and other digital products.
RANDOM ACCESS MEMORY (RAM)
Random access memory or RAM is a type of computer data storage. It takes the form of integrated circuits
that allow the stored data to be accessed in any order, i.e. at random. The word random thus refers to the fact that any piece of data can be returned in a constant time, regardless of its physical location and whether or not it is related to the previous piece of data. It is also known as the working memory of the computer.
This contrasts with storage mechanisms such as tapes, magnetic discs and optical discs, which rely on the physical movement of the recording medium or a reading head. In these devices, the movement takes longer than the data transfer, and the retrieval time varies depending on the physical location of the next item.
The word RAM is mostly associated with volatile types of memory (such as DRAM memory modules), where the information is lost after the power is switched off. However, many other types of memory are RAM as well, including most types of ROM and a kind of flash memory called NOR-Flash.
Modern types of writable RAM generally store a bit of data in either the state of a flip-flop, as in SRAM (static RAM), or as a charge in a capacitor (or transistor gate), as in DRAM (dynamic RAM), EPROM, EEPROM and Flash.
Static random access memory (SRAM) is a type of semiconductor memory where the word static indicates that it does not need to be periodically refreshed, as SRAM uses bistable latching circuitry to store each bit. SRAM exhibits data remanence, but is still volatile in the conventional sense that data is eventually lost when the memory is not powered. Dynamic random access memory (DRAM) is a type of random access memory that stores each bit of data in a separate capacitor within an integrated circuit. Since real capacitors leak charge, the information eventually fades unless the capacitor charge is refreshed periodically.
DRAM
CACHE
A cache is a collection of data duplicating original values stored elsewhere or computed earlier, where the original data is expensive to fetch (owing to longer access time) or to compute, compared to the cost of reading the cache. In other words, a cache is a temporary storage area where frequently accessed data can be stored for rapid access. Once the data is stored in the cache, future use can be made by accessing the cached copy rather than re-fetching or recomputing the original data, so that the average access time is shorter. Cache, therefore, helps expedite data access that the CPU would otherwise need to fetch from main memory.
Central Processing Unit (CPU) July 12, 2008
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A Central Processing Unit (CPU), or sometimes just called processor, is a description of a class of logic machines that can execute computer programs.
A CPU is the main unit of computer where the processing is performed. It contains integrated circuits and registers that form the “brain” of computer. The CPU performs three basic operations on data: It reads data, it manipulates that data and often it writes that data to memory. Processor speed and memory are the main determinants of the price of computer.
Early CPUs were custom-designed as a part of a larger, sometimes one-of-a-kind, computer. However, this costly method of designing custom CPUs for a particular application has largely given way to the development of mass-produced processors that are suited for one or many purposes. This standardization trend generally began in the era of discrete transistor mainframes and minicomputers and has rapidly accelerated with the popularization of the integrated circuit (IC). The IC has allowed increasingly complex CPUs to be designed and manufactured to tolerances on the order of nanometers. Both the miniaturization and standardization of CPUs have increased the presence of these digital devices in modern life far beyond the limited application of dedicated computing machines. Modern microprocessors appear in everything from automobiles to cell phones to children’s toys.
Two manufacturers who dominate the CPU market for personal computers are Intel and Advanced Micro Devices (AMD). Motorola produces PowerPC 750 which powers Apple Macintosh. Other manufacturers of CPU include IBM, Toshiba and Samsung.
INTEGRATED CIRCUIT (IC)
An Integrated Circuit (also known as IC, microcircuit, microchip, silicon chip, or chip) is a miniaturized electronic circuit (consisting mainly of semiconductor devices, as well as passive components) that has been manufactured in the surface of a thin substrate of semiconductor material.
Integrated circuits were made possible by experimental discoveries which showed that semiconductor devices could perform the functions of vacuum tubes, and by mid-20th-century technology advancements in semiconductor device fabrication. The integration of large numbers of tiny transistors into a small chip was an enormous improvement over the manual assembly of circuits using discrete electronic components. The integrated circuit’s mass production capability, reliability, and building-block approach to circuit design ensured the rapid adoption of standardized ICs in place of designs using discrete transistors.
There are two main advantages of ICs over discrete circuits: cost and performance. Cost is low because the chips, with all their components, are printed as a unit by photo lithography and not constructed one transistor at a time. Performance is high since the components switch quickly and consume little power, because the components are small and close together. As of 2006, chip areas range from a few square mm to around 350 mm², with up to 1 million transistors per mm².
Integrated circuits can be classified into analog, digital and mixed signal (both analog and digital on the same chip).
Digital integrated circuits can contain anything from a few thousand to millions of logic gates, flip-flops, multiplexers, and other circuits in a few square millimeters. The small size of these circuits allows high speed, low power dissipation, and reduced manufacturing cost compared with board-level integration. These digital ICs, typically microprocessors, DSPs, and micro controllers work using binary mathematics to process “one” and “zero” signals.
Analog ICs, such as sensors, power management circuits, and operational amplifiers, work by processing continuous signals. They perform functions like amplification, active filtering, demodulation, mixing, etc. Analog ICs ease the burden on circuit designers by having expertly designed analog circuits available instead of designing a difficult analog circuit from scratch.
ICs can also combine analog and digital circuits on a single chip to create functions such as A/D converters and D/A converters. Such circuits offer smaller size and lower cost, but must carefully account for signal interference.
PRINTED CIRCUIT BOARD (PCB)
A Printed Circuit Board, or PCB, is used to mechanically support and electrically connect electronic components using conductive pathways, or traces, etched from copper sheets laminated onto a non-conductive substrate. Alternative names are printed wiring board (PWB),and etched wiring board. A PCB populated with electronic components is a printed circuit assembly (PCA), also known as a printed circuit board assembly (PCBA).
PCBs are rugged, inexpensive, and can be highly reliable. They require much more layout effort and higher initial cost than either wire-wrapped or point-to-point constructed circuits, but are much cheaper and faster for high-volume production. Much of the electronics industry’s PCB design, assembly, and quality control needs are set by standards that are published by the IPC organization.
THE CONTROL UNIT
The Control Unit manages and coordinates all the operations of the CPU. It tells the instruction fetch component when to translate the value into an instruction and the CPU can understand. It also determines what steps are neccesary to accomplish that instruction and then lets the ALU know when to calculate.
THE ARITHMETIC AND LOGIC UNIT (ALU)
An Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU) is a digital circuit that performs arithmetic and logical operations. The ALU is a fundamental building block of the central processing unit (CPU) of a computer, and even the simplest microprocessors contain one for purposes such as maintaining timers. The processors found inside modern CPUs and graphics processing units (GPUs) have inside them very powerful and very complex ALUs; a single component may contain a number of ALUs.
Mathematician John von Neumann proposed the ALU concept in 1945, when he wrote a report on the foundations for a new computer called the EDVAC.
An ALU must process numbers using the same format as the rest of the digital circuit. For modern processors, that almost always is the two’s complement binary number representation. Early computers used a wide variety of number systems, including one’s complement, sign-magnitude format, and even true decimal systems, with ten tubes per digit.
ALUs for each one of these numeric systems had different designs, and that influenced the current preference for two’s complement, as this is the representation that makes it easier for the ALUs to calculate additions and subtractions.
BUS
A bus is a subsystem that transfers data between computer components inside a computer or between computers. Unlike a point-to-point connection, a bus can logically connect several peripherals over the same set of wires. Each bus defines its set of connectors to physically plug devices, cards or cables together.
Early computer buses were literally parallel electrical buses with multiple connections, but the term is now used for any physical arrangement that provides the same logical functionality as a parallel electrical bus. Modern computer buses can use both parallel and bit-serial connections, and can be wired in either a multidrop (electrical parallel) or daisy chain topology, or connected by switched hubs, as in the case of USB.
At one time, “bus” meant an electrically parallel system, with electrical conductors similar or identical to the pins on the CPU. This is no longer the case, and modern systems are blurring the lines between buses and networks.
Buses can be parallel buses, which carry data words in parallel on multiple wires, or serial buses, which carry data in bit-serial form. The addition of extra power and control connections, differential drivers, and data connections in each direction usually means that most serial buses have more conductors than the minimum of one used in the 1-Wire serial bus. As data rates increase, the problems of timing skew, power consumption, electromagnetic interference and crosstalk across parallel buses become more and more difficult to circumvent. One partial solution to this problem has been to double pump the bus. Often, a serial bus can actually be operated at higher overall data rates than a parallel bus, despite having fewer electrical connections, because a serial bus inherently has no timing skew or crosstalk. USB, FireWire, and Serial ATA are examples of this. Multidrop connections do not work well for fast serial buses, so most modern serial buses use daisy-chain or hub designs.
Most computers have both internal and external buses. An internal bus connects all the internal components of a computer to the motherboard (and thus, the CPU and internal memory). These types of buses are also referred to as a local bus, because they are intended to connect to local devices, not to those in other machines or external to the computer. An external bus connects external peripherals to the motherboard.
Network connections such as Ethernet are not generally regarded as buses, although the difference is largely conceptual rather than practical. The arrival of technologies such as InfiniBand and HyperTransport is further blurring the boundaries between networks and buses. Even the lines between internal and external are sometimes fuzzy, I²C can be used as both an internal bus, or an external bus (where it is known as ACCESS.bus), and InfiniBand is intended to replace both internal buses like PCI as well as external ones like Fibre Channel.
In a network, the master scheduler controls the data traffic. If data is to be transferred the requesting computer sends a message to the scheduler, which puts the request into a queue. The message contains an identification code which is broadcast to all nodes of the network. The scheduler works out priorities and notifies the receiver as soon as the bus is available.
The identified node takes the message and performs the data transfer between the two computers. Having completed the data transfer the bus becomes free for the next request in the scheduler’s queue.
The benefit of bus is that any computer can be accessed directly and messages can be sent in a relatively simple and fast way. Disadvantage: needs a scheduler to assign frequencies and priorities to organize the traffic.
THE INTERNAL CLOCK
A clock generator is used to regulate each of the actions the CPU performs. Like a metronome, the clock generator sends out electrical pulses that set the pace of the CPU. Pulses get measured in millions of cycles per second, or megahertz, the measure of a CPU’s raw speed. Generally speaking, the more pulses, the faster the CPU. (1 MHz = 1 million cycles per second or 1 GHz = 1 billion cycles per second)
Types of Computers July 12, 2008
Posted by wayn3eee in CAT T2.add a comment
1. Supercomputers
Supercomputers are the fastest, largest and most powerful computer. It is able to process large amounts of data quickly. Supercomputers are very expensive and are employed for specialized applications that required immense amounts of mathematical calculation. This type of computer can assist in weather forecasting. Other uses of these supercomputers included animated graphics, fluid dynamic calculations, nuclear energy research and petroleum exploration. Besides that, it is also able to be used by the power grids, banking systems and space exploration programmes. For further information, the differences between a supercomputer and a mainframe is that a supercomputer channels all its power into executing a few programs as fast as possible, whereas a mainframe uses its power to execute many programmes concurrently.
2. Mainframes
Mainframe is a very large computer in terms of price ,power and speed.It is also a costly computer and capable of supporting hundreds or even thousands of users simultaneously.Besides that,mainframe is also capable of supporting large networks of computers via telecommunications links.It known as “Enterprise Servers”.In some ways,mainframe is more powerful than a supercomputer because it supports more simultaneous programes.Normally,mainframe is used by large organizations with large volumes of transactions e.g multinational corporations banks,and utility companies.In addition,the distinction between small mainframes and minicomputers is vague,depending really on how the manufacturer wants to market its machines.
3.Minicomputers
A minicomputer,a term no longer much used,is a computer of a size intermediate between a microcomputer and a mainframe.Normally,minicomputer used by mid-size businesses for general business applications and to large enterprise for department-level operations.It is also capable handling a large volume of transaction.In recent years,the minicomputer has evolved into the “mid-range server” and is part of a network.
4.Microcomputers
Microcomputer is the most common type of computer,designed to be used by one person.There are many different types of microcomputers such as Personal Computer(PC),”Macs”(made by Apple Macintosh),Personal Digital Assistant(“PDA”),Palmtop,and Laptops or Notebooks.This type of computer contains a microprocessor,memory,I/O ports and a bus or system of interconnecting wires.those are housed in a unit that usually called a motherboard.It is commonly used in all organizations.
Vinnie’s father’s organisation July 12, 2008
Posted by vinnielee in Parent's Organization.add a comment
I had done research on my father’s organisation recently. My father is working as a plumber. My family (father’s side) owns a shop selling all the plumbing stuffs and some hardware. It’s been a heritage since my grandfather had passed all his skills and the shop to my father and my two uncles. They conduct business together but they have their own customers. They have to work outside separately and do not have any time to take care of the shop. So my aunt lends a helping hand by working at the shop as a clerk. Any business transactions are recorded by her. Besides that, they hire some employees to work for them so that their works will be done faster.
The main objective of this organisation is to do plumbing works and sell the plumbing stuffs. It is common for everyone to know that the work of a plumber is to repair things related to plumbing. They sell pipes, hardware, tap and so on.
To ensure the goals are accomplished, the organisation has to monitor and control their performance. My father and my uncles make sure that they fulfil the customers’ requirements so that the customers will put trust in them and seek for their services in the future. They also have to make sure that the employees follow their commands and procedures in repairing the water-pipes so that the employees will not make any mistakes.
The physical boundary of this organisation is within the state. The type of ownership for this organisation is partnership.
How PEST affects my dad’s organisation?
What is PEST? P represents political/legal, E is economic, S is social/demographic and T is technological.
The political environment can affect his organisation. The factor that affect the organisation is employment law. The foreign workers are to be dismissed from the job by the agent after their contract ends. So, in order to keep them, my dad has to renew their contract. Furthermore, the workers’ health and safety needs to be concerned. Marketing and sales are also part of the legal factors. The consumers have rights to return or replace damage goods they bought earlier. They are also able to get refund from these damaged goods.
The economic environment is an important influence at local and national level. One of the factors is inflation. The rise in fuel price has resulted in the rise of the goods. It is because the organisation has to pay for the goods as well as the transportation of the goods. Besides that, increase in petrol price also affects the business. My father and my uncles work outside and they have to travel from one place to another. So they have to pay more for the petrol.
The social environment is important to organisational planners. One of the examples is geography. The shop must be located at the town where people can find it easily. It should not be located at the rural area because it is hard to do business there. Another factor is employment. Every organisation needs employees. Without them, a lot of works cannot be done in time and the works will pile up.
An organisation can be affected by the technologies we have nowadays. There are more machines now and it is easier for a work to be done easily. Communication with customers is easier as there is internet technology available.
Wayne’s Father’s Organization July 12, 2008
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My father is a businessman and he owns a small company named Syarikat Peralatulis Boon Yu in Malacca.He is running a stationery company.
The type of ownership of his company is private limited.About his role in the company,he alone manages everything by himself.This means,he is making every decisions for his company.The goals of his company is to make as much profits as possible.In other ways,his aim is to supply stationery to each and every Malacca’s schools.My father is always to make sure that the quality of his goods are in controlled and the standards are constantly improved.This is to make sure that the goal of his company are accomplished.The boundary of his company is within the state.
Thats are all about the organization of my father.
~How does PEST affects my father’s organization.
The P in the PEST is stand for political/legal,E is economic,S is social/demographic and the T is technological.
The effects of the political,the price of the stationery thats selling by my father is being observed by the government.There are a price fixing by the government,this is to make sure that the price of the stationery is fair and not too expensive.This action will low down my father’s profit and will become more competitive among the stationery seller.Besides the price fixing,there is also a factor affected by political that is tax.The tax collects by the government is too high,this will affect my father’s profit too.There are some taxes thats my father have to pay such as income tax,and sales tax.This two are the main taxes that my father have to pay.
The effects of the economic is the price of the stationery that giving by the suppliers is high.This is due to the inflation and it wills distorts my father’s decision.Furthermore,my father has a a lot receivables,this is because the cash flow at the market is slow.This will directly affects my father’s business.
By the social/demographic factors,my father’s organization will encounter the age problems.What does the age problems represent for?Age problems mean the changes in the age distribution of the population.In my place,there are many natinal population over retirement age,this is because those young people is working or studying at the developing countries.Therefore,the demands of the stationery in my place will instaneuosly decrease.
The technological’s effect is the way stationery are made.There are some companies using low class raw materials to make their products,this is because they can make more profits.This will directly bring effect to my father’s organization because the price is too competitive.
Thats are all the effects by the PEST.
Teddy’s father’s organization July 12, 2008
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My father runs a private limited company which consists of three shareholders in total. The company is an institute in Automotive Engineering where they provide skills training for the lecturers and trainers. His company is allocated in Kajang, Selangor. My father is the Chief Executive Director(CEO) of the company where he manage the whole company with the other two directors. He also manage to ensure that the business development is in success with quality.
The company also provide government institute lecturers under the Ministry of Human Resources where they train lecturers to give education and training on Automotive Engineering with the government. The objective of his company is to be one of the famous Automotive University College in South Asia. In the other hand, they also plans to provide the best advanced technology in skill traning of Automotive Engineering.
The controlled performance of the institute is to control good quality education for Automotive Engineering where the advanced technology is always in up to date condition so that trainers can acquire the best high tech of engineering. The boundary of the company is where the limitation based on the company’s act by the governments through share allotment of the company.
How does PEST affect my father’s organisation? P stands for political or legal, E is economic, S for social or demographic and T represents technological.
From the political point, one of the factor that my father’s organisation is affected is through employment law. My father’s company requires staff that are highly specialize in a certain area such as lecturing about the automotive engineering, people who expertise in advertising the company’s business. Besides that, factor that affecting my father’s organisation as well is tax law. In this factor, my father company taxes are not fixed because as the organisation received more trainer into the company for tranning, the government will collect more taxes constantly.
In economic factor, the most influences is government spending where the profit earned by the company is usually spend on the government sector in which receiving more project for the company’s of future good. Apart from that, the overall growth or fall in gross domestic product highly demand where the services and equipments is instantly increasing time to time as the trainer increases.
As for social or demographic factor, the geography areas where the organisation is allocated are mostly malay races where almost 90% and above are malays that are receiving tranning in that institute. On the other hand, wealth is also factor that are currently on demand in the organisation, where every individuals are demanding for better needs in their work to ensure that their working will be much more faster and efficient so that wastage of time can be avoided apparently.
In technology factor, this had been so importantly in the organisation that everyone would like to have in contributing the economic growth so that my father’s company can attract more students to join in increasing the company’s profit. By this way, the company can reduced more costs such as labour and time in conducting the tranning. Thus, the organisation are improving their equipment in order to keep updated to the latest technology in providing a better environment.
That’s all about my father’s organisation….
Melissa’s Father’s Organization July 12, 2008
Posted by melissa1690 in Parent's Organization.add a comment
My father works as an employee, holding the position of Sales Manager in a sole proprietorship company. This company provides engineering services in machinery and milling works. My father’s job is to get sales from different factories when they have any machine breakdowns and to provide service and repair for the customers. My father’s employer hires some machinists and technicians to carry out the repair job.
Every organization has goals to achieve in order to improve their standards. The main goal of this organization is to increase sales and profitability for the company.
In order to increase the production of the company, all the workers have to work hard towards the goals of the company. Besides that, they will provide personalized service to all customers and they make sure that their job is done on time. My father ensures he will build up good rapport with workers like machinists and technicians so that they will finish their job on time and to reduce down-time for customers’ machines breakdown. He will also prospect for more customers from different factories that need services.
There’s no exact social boundary for this organization because it’s a sole proprietorship company which is a business of one without corporation or limited liability status. My father’s position as a Sales Manager of the company takes instructions from his employer and carry out duties as required by him. The physical boundary of this company is within Klang Valley.
How does PEST affects my father’s organization?
P – Political/legal factors
In view of the political situation that our country is facing, a lot of the factories that provide sales to my father’s company are unsure of their future. Therefore, many factories are now very prudent in their budget in maintenance and repair services. In order to take care of the workers’ welfare, the company pay for the personal accident insurance for the machinists and technicians who are doing the repair job in the factory. The factory is also equipped with adequate fire extinguishers to ensure the safety of workers just in case the factory catches fire. In the area of marketing and sales, all repair jobs are given a warranty period of 30 days. If there are dissatisfaction from customers, prompt actions will be taken immediately.
E – Economic factors
Due to the uncertainty of economical situation, sales are reduced significantly. Price hike of raw materials will result in less demand for services and repair jobs. As a result, there will be more competitors to my father’s organization.
S – Social/demographics factors
My father’s place of work is situated in the light industrial area where there are demands for repair jobs. Besides that, the workers consist of technicians and machinists whom will do the repair jobs while my father will be in charge of getting sales from different factories within Klang Valley.
T – Technological factors
This factor affects my father’s organization the most. Without the advancement in technology, the repair job cannot be done within a short time and it’s time consuming. Technology helps to maximize the efficiency of the workers in the factory.
My Father’s Organization July 12, 2008
Posted by Sunway Iconz in Parent's Organization.add a comment
by Lee Han Chen
My father works as a lecturer in the Allied Health and Science Institute (Kolej Sains dan Kesihatan Bersekutu), which is a college wholly owned by the Ministry of Health, Malaysia.
My father college is situated at Sungai Buloh, which is about 30 minutes drive from Kuala Lumpur. The college consist of a few departments, such as Environmental Health Department, Nursing Department and many more. My father works as a lecturer under the Environmental Health Department. The department is lead by a Pengarah and followed by a few head of subjects.
The goals of the college is to produce quality graduates who will work in the public sector as Nurse, Health Inspector, among others. The college control their performance by monitoring students’ progress from time to time with small tests, quizzes and trial exams. Their college’s physical boundary is within the compound of the college while the physical boundary has no limits as the Chinese says, “Once a teacher, forever a teacher“. The types of ownership of his organization is the public sector.
This is all about my father’s organization.
How does PEST affects my father’s organization?
PEST, which is the short abbreviation for Political, Economical, Social and Technological, affects my father’s organization in various ways.
Since my father’s organization is under the control of the Ministry of Health, the political situation in Malaysia will surely affect his college. The current political situation in Malaysia leaves doubts on whether which side of the two alliances (BN and PR), will emerge as victory. As such, my father’s organization will still be in doubt on whether their “boss” will change in the near future. Besides that, the college is also affected politically as it is bound under the University and University College Act, where the organization will need to monitor the student’s activity to prevent any students from breaching the act.
My father’s organization is also affected by the economical situation in the country. The main reason for this is that as a public sector entity, the organization needs to secure operating funds from the government. If the economical situation is not very stable, the government would not have excess fund to fund the organization’s day to day activities.
Although it is not as influential as politics and economies, but the social environment also affects my father’s organization. This mainly affects the amount of students to my father’s colleges. As such, the social environment around not only Klang Valley but the whole of Malaysia will determines the number of students furthering their studies to my father’s college.
Lastly, the technological influences. Nowadays, most institution of higher learning are fully equipped with gadgets with the latest technologies to assist in the teaching and learning process in classes as well as in lecture halls. For my father’s college, they have a fully wireless network in their campus. Besides, some classes are conducted using slides and projectors. Students are also encouraged to use the latest technological gadgets like notebooks to complete their coursework as well as assignments. The student’s report on progress are also posted online for parents to view.
It’s Vinnie here July 9, 2008
Posted by vinnielee in About Us.add a comment
Hi, everyone! Welcome to our blog! Let me introduce myself. My name is Vinnie Lee Wai Yee. I’m now furthering my studies at Sunway University College. I’m taking CAT course now. So this blog is created by my team called Iconz. Our objective is to become an icon of Malaysia in the future. One of my lecturers has encouraged my class to create a blog. It is good to share all the information with all of you. Thanks to Mr Bill. So, all of you sure want to know more about me, right?
Now, let me talk more about myself. I came from Kampar, Perak. I hope all of you know where it is. I choose to study at Sunway University College because this is the only college which offers ACCA course. Although it is not an easy course, if you have great passion towards it, then nothing is impossible. Furthermore, there are many facilities here. If you are interested to know, you are welcomed to enrol to the Sunway University College.
I choose ACCA course because my ambition is to become an accountant. When I am in Secondary School, the subjects I like the most are Mathematics, Additional Mathematics and Account. Since I was small, I have great passion towards counting. It is the most challenging and interesting thing for me to do. Whenever I cannot solve any problem, I will try to find the solution until I succeed. Now, I realised that accounting is not just about counting. Taking this course teaches me how to deal and manage people in our life and the most important thing is to learn how to become rich. As Mr Bill said, if you want to make more money, you have to know how to manage yourself and the people around you.
Now, I hope that all of you will enjoy yourself reading all the information my team has posted. Keep on visiting our blog so that we can share much information with all of you. Thanks for visiting and enjoy yourself! Have a nice day!
About Melissa July 9, 2008
Posted by melissa1690 in About Us.add a comment
Hi peeps!! Welcome to our lovely and interesting blog. This blog is not to post about our personal stuff but us, as a group of five ‘Certified Accounting Technician (CAT)’ students who work together as a team will update this blog with a handful of information which are related to our course syllabus. We gave a very unique name to our group which is called ‘Iconz’. The main reason for us naming our group ‘Iconz’ is because we share the same vision and goal which is to be the icon of Malaysia in the future.
Before you start your journey to explore our blog, let me introduce to you the author of this particular post…….
I’m Melissa Wong. I was born in Kuala Lumpur but currently I’m staying in Subang Jaya with my family. I completed my Form Five at SMK USJ 8 last year. I was a Science Stream student but I’ve decided to take up ‘Certified Accounting Technician’ course at Sunway College University.
Why do I choose to take up this course which is known as one of the toughest course in the world when I’ve no qualification in Accounting?
After my SPM examination, I had no idea what course to take up because I don’t have a specific ambition since young. Then, I tried consulting different counselors from different colleges. Since I have this great love towards mathematics and I’ve started learning Mental Arithmetic at the age of seven, most of them suggested me to take up Accounting & Finance courses. To get a clearer picture of what Accounting & Finance is, I talked to one of my friend who is currently working in an accounting firm. She introduced me to work in a small accounting firm as a trainee so that I could learn more about accounting. I worked in the tax department and the audit department and since then I started to enjoy and wanted to learn more. Through the 3-months of working, I’m even convinced that accounting is not something which is dull like many would say so. Thus, I’ve decided to take up ACCA course and I’ve made my mind to put all my effort to complete this course within 3 years.
Last but not least, I would like to thank Mr. Bill who is our T2 and T5 lecturer for giving me this opportunity to work with my fellow group members to do research on various topics which are to be posted on this blog.
Enjoy reading our blog. Feel free to leave your comments. =)
TeD’s biography July 9, 2008
Posted by teddyliew in About Us.add a comment
Hello…!! Welcome to our blog of informations!!! My name is Teddy Liew Ee Nern from Sunway University College. I’m now taking CAT course which is known as “Certified Accounting Technician”. There are a total of 5 members in our group naming, Iconz. The objective of our group is to be an icon that not only in the college as well as in the world with full of admirations all over. I would like to greet towards my respected lecturer Mr.Bill in encouraging and inspiring us in order to share and provide valuable informations through out our blog.
Now is the time to introduce myself, I’m from Kuala Lumpur which is the biggest city of Malaysia. The purpose i chose ACCA is because of my parents encouragement in taking finance course and part of that is, i hope i can earn more money in my future career through this professional courses. Although this is one of the toughest course in the world which is not going to be easy come easy go, therefore i’ve decided from the very start to put in full effort and hardwork in completing within 3 years. I chose Sunway University College as my education centre is because this college provides the best ACCA courses in Malaysia with the platinum recognition.
Lastly, i hope that everyone of you who visited our blog can gain more knowledge and useful information through out our blog. Any comments is acceptable so that we can improve more on our blog in providing informations to you all.
Thanks………
Wayne’s Data July 9, 2008
Posted by wayn3eee in About Us.add a comment
Hello,Thanks for viewing our blog!!! My name is Wayne Eee Suen Pei,is my name attracting? I’m taking Certified Accounting Technician(CAT) at Sunway University College. My group was made up of five members and the name of the group is Iconz. The goal of my group is to be the Iconz of Malaysia. I would like to greet my utmost gratitude toward Mr.Bill due to encourage us to share information through this blog.
I would like to talk more about myself now. I come from Malacca,which is a very nice place for visiting. The purpose i choose ACCA course is because it can make me to achieve rich faster. I knew about the course through the newspaper. Although it is not an easy course,but i will put all my effort to graduate on time(3 years).And do you know why do i choose to do the course at Sunway University College? This is because the quality of the education of this college is highly recognized by the ACCA of UK. Besides that,the facilities at this college are fulfill for everyone’s needs.
Lastly,i hope that you all can enjoy and learn when reading the information that posted by my group.Before i end it,i would like to thank to my group leader. When creating this blog,he helped me a lots…
Thanks…
The Group Leader Speaks July 9, 2008
Posted by Sunway Iconz in About Us.add a comment
Hi,
As the Group Leader of Sunway Iconz, I would like to welcome you to our blog.
I would like to introduce us and our blog. We are currently furthering our tertiary studies at Sunway University College, Malaysia under the course Certified Accounting Technicians (CAT) in progression to The Association of Certified Charted Accountants (ACCA). Our class is G15 and this blog is created as a medium for us to post our assignments, “FunTasks” and researches which are given by our T2 and T5 subjects lecturer, Mr Bill Low. This blog will be updated from time to time throughout the year. As long as there are assignments given by Mr Bill, there will be updates for this blog.
Now, after introducing the blog, I would like to talk more about myself. My name is Lee Han Chen, and I am from the state (and city) of Melaka, the historical city (which just got its “World Heritage Site” status by UNESCO) of Malaysia. I completed my primary education at SJKC Pay Fong 3 while my secondary education is completed at Malacca High School (I am sure you will know my school if you know what Premier Schools are).
Why do I choose Sunway University College (Sun-U)? The are plenty of reasons for it. One of the main reason for me to make this choice is because of the quality education provided by Sun-U which is recognized even by the ACCA of UK. Besides that, another reason for my choice is because of the environment here as well as the quality of lectures. In Sun-U, we have several tests as well as exams to monitor the improvements of a students besides allowing them to experience the exam-like environment, which is not available in most ACCA Tuition Providers around the globe. What I also like about Sun-U is the facilities available here. We have everything that comes into your mind, for example wireless internet access, computer rooms, badminton court, Olympic-size swimming pool, and many more.
Lastly, I would like to thank all my group members who are very cooperative in the process of creating and updating this blog. From this process, we have learned the importance of team work. For myself, I have learned the ways to lead, the ways to distribute works and the ways to organize a small organization.
Thank you for taking the time to visit our blog.
Regards,
Lee Han Chen
Group Leader of Sunway Iconz
